Different sky cultures have survived to the modern era, mostly by being recorded in one form or another. These are characterised mainly by being recorded directly from an oral tradition. However, in some cases, the original culture was influenced by other cultures before it was possible to document the original. This can in some respect be compared with the inclusion of words in a language or genes in an isolated population, causing a “contamination”. The “documented” sky culture is thus not “original” anymore. However, as with languages, it is possible to trace when and where specific words were included in the language. When it comes to sky cultures, a similar approach might make it possible to retrieve the original by documenting different varieties within a certain culture and neighbouring cultures. One example where we only have fragmented and diverging accounts of an ancient sky culture is the Sami sky culture, which was first recorded in the late 19th – early 20th century and with a limited number of sources. Thus, our knowledge is quite fragmented and there is a lack in the different varieties that might have existed.
The Sami
The Sámi people are Finno-Ugric-speaking people inhabiting the northern parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Murmansk Oblast in Russia. The origin of this group has been traced to the upper parts of the Volga region from where they migrated into the Finnish Lakelands about 1500 BC and on to their current homeland around the beginning of the Common Era.[1] Genetic studies indicate that the Sami group is relatively isolated from other genetic groups in Europe, but the data shows a mixing with groups probably originating from Siberia.[2,3]. When and where this mixing occurred is not fully understood yet.
It should be noted that there is evidence of Mesolithic and Neolithic settlements pre-dating the migration of Sami into the area. For example, the Komsa culture which existed in the northern parts of Scandinavia, on and near the Arctic coast, about 10000 BC, was a sea-orientated hunter culture. Also, petroglyphs dating from 3000 BC to 500 BC in northern Scandinavia indicate the existence of other hunter-gatherer cultures.
Compared with the Scandinavian settlers, who mainly occupied areas close to the coast, river valleys and larger lakes, the Sami settled further inland with relatively little contact between the different groups until the Scandinavian expansion during medieval times, when the central kingdoms were consolidating their power and land.
Sami sky culture
The Sami culture is based on a strong link to the sun and the moon [4], as indicated by the sun symbols at the centre of the Sami shaman’s drums. Since the sun was carried over the sky by a bear and the bear had a special role in Sami culture, shows the close connection between the mythology and the environment. Living in a region where the sun is barely visible during winter (when bears are in hibernation) indicates the connection. The dark season also explains the importance of the moon in the culture as the moon can be a useful light source during the winter months.
Even if one would expect that the stars are readily observable during winter due to the absence of the sun, frequent Auroras and bad weather may hinder a good viewing. The stars were probably also used for navigation as landmarks could be covered with snow during winter. It is also probable that the stars were used for time-telling, with the Big Dipper or Ursa Minor as a guide. Ursa Minor and the Big Dipper both have names in old Finnish, indicating that they seem to have been used to tell time, why one would expect the same in the neighbouring Sami culture. There are also indications that Ursa Minor was used for time-telling by the Norse.
The original sky culture is based on how the Sami lived, based on hunting and fishing, similar to other arctic and sub-arctic cultures. Similar to other sky cultures, it was not recorded until after a possible influence by the Western or other neighbouring sky cultures. Since it did not exist written record until the late 19th century [4,5] and then not in a systematic way only fragments exist. An additional complication is that we do not have one homogeneous sky culture, but many different based on local traditions and slightly different Sami languages (The western: North, South, Lule, and the eastern languages: Skolt, Kildin and Inare). One must also be aware of the influence of previous cultures in the area as indicated by pre-Sami petroglyphs from an earlier hunter-gatherer population. Even if the main motif in the petroglyphs is the elk, other symbols such as ships (like petroglyphs found in southern Sweden) indicate that these were not of Sami origin. Still, a pre-existing culture might have served as an inspiration or template for an evolving mythology. A common sky culture for hunter-gatherers in the region is also a possibility.
The basic picture of the sky is like other arctic and sub-arctic cultures (including the Norse) with the sky as an upside bowl held in place by a support close to Polaris. The sky support will, in many cultures including the Sami, at some point break causing the world to end. This places Polaris or in Sami: Boahji or Boahjenaste in a central position of the sky mythology. Note that “boahji” (in Sami) is related to “pohja” (in Finnish) which means north or fundament. (Polaris is called Pohjan täthi, North Star in Finnish). Thus, indicating both a support and a guide. One should be aware that Polaris being the “pole star” is a fairly new invention, as the precession of the Earth’s axis made it the closest pole star about 1000 years ago. Thus, the star culture has probably evolved.
The sky myth described by Johan Turi [4,5] is a heavenly hunt in the sky. As originally hunters and gatherers, the sky myths reflect daily life.
Central in this hunting scene is a reindeer bull (or possibly an elk, but this is unlikely as it has antlers [note 1]) (Sarva or Sarvvis) which is the target for a party of collaborating hunters, reflecting the hunting techniques. Sarva, the reindeer bull, is formed by our constellations Cassiopea (the antlers), Perseus and parts of Auriga making up a large constellation.
The hunter Favdna (Arcturus) is aiming at the Reindeer with his bow and arrow[note 2] (The Big Dipper). But he must aim well because if he misses and hits Boahjenaste (Polaris) will the world end. But Favdna is not alone in the hunt, Galla (the old man) another hunter (Procyon or Rigel) and his sons, Gallabartnit (Orion’s belt) are also chasing Sarva, together with a skier (Vega) and his dogs (or additional skiers), Cuoigahægjek.
Since Johan Turi[4,5] is the main source and we know of different local names, there likely exist local variations of the story, as well as additional stories. But these stories and names may have been forgotten.
In the case of Pleiades, we know of different names. They are called a pack of dogs (puppies) or a flock of calves. As dogs, they take part in the hunt in some stories accompanied by an old woman. Notably, they are also referred to as seven stars. Even if an old Finnish name is also related to a pack of dogs, other Finnish names refer to Kalevala or the stars as a sieve, a more common name in southern Finland and Estonia.
Concerning Sami shaman’s drums
It is not possible to discuss Sami sky culture without mentioning the Shaman or magic drums as these are a vital part of Sami culture. The drums usually have a sun-like symbol, something one can find in different cultures all over the northern hemisphere. This might indicate that the drum in some way is mirroring the sky. However, there exists a plenitude of designs, both geographically and in time and no drums are the same. This indicates a more personal design than a general one and does not directly mirror a common sky culture. That is, there exist some common elements (for example the sun symbol). It is doubtful that the drum reflects the sky as such, but rather a mythological world where some elements originate from the sky. It might be possible to derive some celestial elements from the drums, but very little information can be deduced without an oral tradition.
Future studies
The late documentation of Sami sky culture makes it quite difficult to draw any major conclusions about the Sami sky culture. We find only pieces from different parts of the Sami cultures, nor is it likely that there ever was a homogeneous sky culture but rather a general picture of a sky hunt with many different local variations. The variations should in some respects mirror daily life and local traditions, also including influences from other cultures.
Even if much is lost, should be possible to extract what little information might still exist. By collecting as many stories as possible and names related to the sky within the Sami culture, with location and information on where they came from, modern methods of extracting information should be possible. Contamination from other cultures will be a problem, but by documenting these cultures we should be able to exclude most of these.
The myth that the sky is supported in the form of a star at the pole may have an ancient origin as Vega was the pole star (within 5 degrees) about 12000 BC. The star’s magnitude made it easily observable and a source for stories. The precession changes the earth’s axis so there will be periods where no star is close to the pole. However the idea of a sky support likely comes from the use of tents, and when a star happens to be near the pole it becomes integrated into the myth. The question is if the original stories remain or if new ones arose in these cases.
Since there exist different names for the Pleiades, depending on sources from different regions, it might be that this is more dependent on local mythology than other parts of the celestial hunt, which represent a general mythological story. This makes a study of the geography of the local names interesting, both in the migration of names and in the origin of local myths.
- Lang, Valter (2020). Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria (in Finnish). Helsinki: Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura. p. 104. ISBN 978-951-858-130-0.
- Tambets K, Rootsi S, Kivisild T, Help H, Serk P, Loogväli EL, Tolk HV, Reidla M, Metspalu E, Pliss L, Balanovsky O, Pshenichnov A, Balanovska E, Gubina M, Zhadanov S, Osipova L, Damba L, Voevoda M, Kutuev I, Bermisheva M, Khusnutdinova E, Gusar V, Grechanina E, Parik J, Pennarun E, Richard C, Chaventre A, Moisan JP, Barác L, Pericić M, Rudan P, Terzić R, Mikerezi I, Krumina A, Baumanis V, Koziel S, Rickards O, De Stefano GF, Anagnou N, Pappa KI, Michalodimitrakis E, Ferák V, Füredi S, Komel R, Beckman L, Villems R. The western and eastern roots of the Saami–the story of genetic «outliers» told by mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomes. Am J Hum Genet. 2004 Apr;74(4):661-82. doi: 10.1086/383203. Epub 2004 Mar 11. PMID: 15024688; PMCID: PMC1181943.
- Lamnidis, T.C., Majander, K., Jeong, C. et al. Ancient Fennoscandian genomes reveal origin and spread of Siberian ancestry in Europe. Nat Commun 9, 5018 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07483-5
- Bo Lundmark Bæi’vi mánno nástit (Svensk tittel: Sol- och månkult samt astrala och celesta föreställningar bland samerna [Sun- and Moon-cult, astral and celestial conceptions among Sami], 1982) (in Swedish) Volume 5 of Acta Bothniensia occidentalis, ISSN 0347-8114
- Turi, J., & DuBois, T. A. (2012). An account of the Sámi : a translation of Muitalus sámiid birra, based on the Sámi original (p. 221). ČálliidLágádus. ISBN 978-82-8263-063-4
[1] This is inferred as Elk in petroglyphs do not have antlers. However, older male reindeer do not have antlers in winter, when it is easier to hunt, so the designation of a “bull” is probably symbolic.
[2] The name indicates only a bow.