This has been updated on 27.02.2026, as a new explanation to the name «Fiskikarlar» has come to light!
The night sky, with its stars and planets, has inspired humans since the dawn of time. The stars formed constellations that were part of people’s lore and mythology. Today, we are aware of several star cultures, which have been incorporated into the planetarium software Stellarium. The most common mythology used in astronomy is the Greek one, with the 48 classical constellations given by Ptolemy in the Almagest.
With the advent of modern ethnoastronomy, a holistic picture emerges where astronomy and cultural studies give information about existing or ancient cultures. The use of astronomical phenomena was probably an integrated part of the culture, and different tribes might have had different constellations as well as stories. But one also has to be aware that the exchange of both goods and culture has been around for a very long time. This can be illustrated by the spread of agriculture in Europe.
In the case of ancient mythology and astronomy, we are limited to what has been preserved in writing or archaeological artefacts. In the case of Norse culture, this is especially the case, since the culture, to a large extent, was oral up to early medieval times. The Norse had and used the Rune alphabet (Futhark), but it seems not to have been used in documenting the mythology to a large extent. The use of runes also indicates an influence from southern Europe. There is also evidence that people from southern Sweden had extensive trade with Rome and that some were mercenaries there during the fourth and fifth centuries BC. So, the culture was probably also influenced by the Roman culture. Even if it is several hundred years before the period that is normally called the Viking Age, from Lindisfarne 793 to the battle at Stamford Bridge 1066, it is important to note this. This early culture suffered during the sixth-century famine over several years, probably caused by volcanic eruptions with a change in weather, causing disruption and laying the ground for the coming Viking age. These years without summers have survived in the mythological memory as the time that will precede the end of the world, Ragnarök in Norse mythology.
There are further aspects of the mythology and the constellations used by the Norse. First, Norse mythology is not one but a layer of different mythologies, where different families of gods have migrated into the known mythology, as indicated by Æsir and Vanir in the mythology, where the Vanir (Freya and Frey) probably is older and found in an earlier culture. Second, the Æsir borrows some elements from older Indo-European mythologies as well as from Greek mythology. Third, the christening of Scandinavia introduced Latin as a scholarly language and with it Latin names of constellations.
So, we have to be very critical of the material we have and make sure we do not make any misinterpretations. Thus, we must be very careful of any material originating from the Romanticism in the19th century, where “new” names and traditions arose and from the ”New Age” movement, which invents new names and traditions.
Literature
Our main source of information on Norse mythology comes from the Eddas, the poetic Edda and the prosaic (Snorre Sturlason’s) Edda, written down during the 13th century. But there exist other sources, as in the case of the Eddas, surprisingly few references to the sky, as we know the mastery of the Norse navigation and seamanship, something that indicates a fair knowledge of astronomy for navigation. But this can also be due to the oral transition of knowledge from father to son, something one would not expect to be written down.
Observations of the stars and the sun are important for navigation, but also as a way of telling time. Local landmarks are used in combination with observations to tell the time. But one notices that the Norse were aware of the difference between “sun-time” and “star-time”. The existence of a Norse calendar is mentioned in the Icelandic chronicle “Íslendingabók”, where a calendar reform around AD955 is described. A calendar that was used from the 8th century till the 12th century, when the Julian calendar was introduced. The Icelandic calendar was likely based on astronomical observations.
We find in the Icelandic literature a man, Odd Helgason (c. 1075-c. 1145),” Star-Oddi”, who had a reputation for being a skilful astronomer. A text supposedly originating from him includes the winter and summer solstice [1]. The text shows his astronomical skills, which shows a tradition for astronomical observations, something that probably lost its importance with increased literacy and an increased number of foreign and Icelandic books. Among these books, we find a medieval encyclopaedic text on Astronomy that has survived [2].
Stars and constellations in the Eddas.
In Völuspa, the origin of the stars and planets is mentioned, as well as their end at Ragnarök. The world was created from the body of the giant Ymer. His skull forms the firmament and is held in place by four dwarfs, where sparks from Muspellheim form the stars. Their place in the sky was determined by the gods, and some were given paths where they would roam. In the prosaic Edda, which is a textbook on writing poetry, we find more stories where stars are mentioned. As in Greek mythology, how they ended up in the sky.
In Skáldskaparmál, the story of Tjatse is told. Tjatse managed, with the assistance of Loki, to kidnap Idun, the keeper of the apples of youth, from Asgard. Loki managed to save her but was pursued by Tjatse, who was killed. Tjatses’ daughter Skade came and demanded compensation for her father. The compensation was, among other things, a husband. In addition, Odin or Thor placed Tjatses’ eyes in the sky, whose stars they are, we do not know.
The other story where a star or constellation is mentioned is in the epilogue of the fight between Thor and the giant Hrungnir. Thor was injured in the fight, and a small piece of stone got stuck in his head. To get it out, he sought help from a Vala, a type of oracle, named Groa. When Thor felt that the stone was coming out, he told Groa that he helped her husband, Aurvandil, to escape from the land of the giants. During the escape, Aurvandil froze hit big toe, which Thor broke off and threw up into the sky to become a star or a constellation, Aurvandil’s toe. This made Groa so happy that she forgot her magic, and Thor still has that piece of stone in his head.
There exist several possible candidates for” Aurvandil’s toe”. Rigel is one possibility, as “Orion” is associated with Thor in other myths. Richard Allen [3] identifies” Orwandil”[1] as the Norse name of Orion, and Rigel as one of ” Orwandil’s” toes. The broken-off toe is, according to Allen, Alcor, since he was riding in Thor’s chariot (Man’s chariot, i.e. The Big Dipper). But this is hardly the case, as he was carried on Thor’s back according to the myth.
” Aurvandil’s toe” might also be Corona Borealis, partly due to the likeness to a toe. But there are also other indications making this identification the most likely. Corona Borealis is a spring constellation that is of importance. In” Gesta Danorum» written by Saxo Grammaticus [4], one finds a story of a King, Horwendil, who is fighting a duel with a Norwegian king, Koller (cold). The duel ends with Horwendil cutting off Koller’s foot and thus killing him. This story is probably based on an old myth of the fight between seasons, making Koller’s foot or “Aurvandil’s toe” a sign of spring or summer’s victory over the cold winter.
There is another interesting object in the Eddas, Bifrost, often identified as the name of the rainbow or the Milky Way. There are these two interpretations. In the north-western European tradition, the rainbow is the road of the dead. This road is in Norse mythology called the road to Hel, the realm of the dead. But the rainbow is also the road to the “other” world. The name Bifrost originates from two words, “bif”, the shimmering, the trembling or the multi-coloured, and “rost”, road. In the poetic Edda, Bifrost is described as the shimmering road and as the road to Asgard, something that is inconsistent with the rainbow.
Rudolf Simek [5] identifies Bifrost as the rainbow, while Jan de Vries [6] concentrates on the notion of the shimmering road, thus identifying Bifrost as the Milky Way. There is other circumstantial evidence. Heimdall, the guardian of Bifrost, lives in a house” high up in the sky”. In arctic and subarctic cultures, the Milky Way is the road to the world of the dead. The dark period of the year is also the time when the dark forces and the dead are closer to our world, but during this period, rainbows are very rare, while the Milky Way is visible. So Bifrost is probably a mix; during the day it is the rainbow, while being the Milky Way at night, an indication of influences from different cultures and mythologies.
Stars in encyclopaedic literature.
The literature that survived originates from 1150-1400, which may have been influenced by continental material. This is indicated by the use of names that are more or less a direct translation of the Latin names. The author could have known the Old Norse names but used the Latin names instead.
Constellations
In Beckman and Kålund’s compilation [7] of Rimtöl (rhymes of time (or time telling)), they present five constellations that appear to have the old Norse names:
«Ulf’s Keptr», Mouth of the Wolf, Hyades
” Fiskikarlar”, Fishermen, Orion’s belt
” Kvennavagn”, Woman’s chariot; Ursa Minor
” Karlvagn”, Man’s chariot; The big dipper
” Asar bardagi”, The Æsir battlefield, Auriga
The mouth of the Wolf («Ulf’s Keptr»), Hyades, shows a resemblance to a wolf’s mouth. In Norse mythology, two wolves are hunting the sun and the moon. The mouth of the Wolf is close to the ecliptic and can be interpreted as one of these wolves. An alternative explanation is that it symbolises the Fenrir Wolf, whose mouth is held open with a sword. The Milky Way is then formed by the foam from his mouth. But this is not supported by the myth, as Fenrir was chained underground. If the Milky Way is the road to Hel, the wolf could be Garm, who is guarding the entrance to Hel.
Gislason [8] mentions a second Mouth of the Wolf, in the vicinity of Andromeda; this might be the stars in Pieces, as they are close to the ecliptic.
However, the two wolves in the sky can be interpreted as one running in front of the sun and one running behind. This might be the origin of the word Sundog, parhelia. The Danish and old Swedish name is a direct translation of the English, or rather vice versa.
Orion is a well-known constellation, and there are several names on Orion’s belt of Norse origin. Beckman and Kålunds [7] use” Fiskikarlar”, the fishermen. Another name is ”Friggs distaff”. These names seem to be used locally; the fishermen are used in Norway and Iceland, while Friggs distaff is used in Sweden. One should also note that an old Finnish name is “Ämmänrukki”, the old woman’s distaff. This might indicate that the name is related to activities when Orion is in the sky, and also partly explains the names. In January, during the Viking era, Orion rises just after sunset. This coincides with the migration of a Cod subspecies from the Barents Sea to the northern coast of Norway. This was and is the traditional time for fish and preparing dried fish, which was the typical way to store in the absence of enough salt. This might explain the use and location of ” Fiskikarlar”, the fishermen, for Orion’s belt.
One of the most well-known constellations is The Big Dipper, the Plough or Charles’s wain, which in the Nordic countries is called ”Karlavagnen”, the chariot of Karl or man. The wagon is easily identified, but the origin of the name is a source of discussion. One theory is that it is named after Charlemagne (Karl in Scandinavian) and is of medieval origin. But if we look at the older Norse name, we find” Karlsvagn” (Man’s chariot), but also ”Kvennavagn” (woman’s Chariot) as the name of Ursa Minor (or vice versa). This might indicate a connection between the constellations and that the names are much older, with the possibility that specific names have been used during different periods in history. This means that Thor might be the Man as well as Freya, being the woman, both travelling by chariots according to the myths. We also might have a connection with the Nerthus cult, described by Roman authors. Chariots play an important role in older Scandinavian culture, which can be older and based in the local Iron- or Bronze Ages.
One constellation which has a peculiar name is Auriga, which is called ”asar bardagi”. The battlefield or the fight of the Æsir. Beckman and Kålund interpret this name as Thor’s Fight, probably based on the Greek name. But “asar” is plural, so it might indicate the final battle for all Æsir, that is, Ragnarök, the end of the world. The neighbouring constellations are equally horrifying, with The Mouth of The Wolf, and the Milky Way as The road of the dead, in the vicinity.
Stars
In Rimtøl, we also find three stars that have special names:
Arcturus; Dagstjarna, Day-star.
Polaris; Leidarstjarna, Guiding star
Vega; Sudrstjarna, South star
Vega is visible in the southern sky during summer in Scandinavia and is in the south at midnight during the summer solstice.
Polaris is always in the north, and have probably been used for navigation, hence its name. Note that Polaris was not as close to the celestial pole 1000 years ago as it is today, but it still gives an indication of where north is.
But why call a star Day-star? (This name, Dagstjerne, is still used in parts of Norway, and the Finnish name for Arcturus is ”Aurinkontähti”, Sunstar.) We know that the sun does not follow star time, so why shouldn’t there exist a specific star that follows the sunrise? But at the latitudes of Scandinavia, especially around the Arctic Circle, the sunrise follows star time during the first months of the year. So, an intense star visible before sunrise during late winter and spring will indicate that the sun is coming and is referred to as the daystar, which is Arcturus.
We also find an indication of a star in folklore, especially in a popular Swedish Christmas song, with a medieval origin. The interesting lines go like this:
Det är väl ingen dager än,
Fast Eder tyckes så,
Det är den ljusa stjärnan
Som för dagen plägar gå.
” There is no sign of dawn.
Even if it seems so to you.
It is the shining star.
Which usually goes before the day.”
The last line is the key phrase: it describes a star that regularly appears before the daylight, strengthening the Arcturus interpretation.
The song is traditionally sung during the Christmas season, when Arcturus indeed appears in the appropriate position to be seen as the herald of daybreak.
Conclusions.
The Norse societies had considerable, mostly practical knowledge of astronomy and quite possibly their names of stars and constellations. These names have been lost, apart from some fragments from written sources and within Scandinavian folklore. The literature was probably written down by persons who had some education, including in astronomy, why they used the Latin names. But the small fragments that exist give a picture of this lost culture that might increase when more notes are found in the Icelandic archives.
References:
- Roslund Curt, Stjärn-Oddi: En vikingatida astronom på Island, Astronomisk årsbok, s 28, 1984 (in Swedish)
- Beckman, N. and Kålund, Kr. (1914-16). Alfræði íslenzk: Islandsk encyklo-pædisk litteratur: II. Rímtöl [Encyclopaedic literature on the calendar]. s 48-53 (in Swedish).
- Richard Hinckley Allen, Star Names; Their lore and meaning.
- Saxo Grammaticus,” Gesta danorum» (In Latin)
- Rudolf Simek, The Dictionary of Northen Mythology
- Jan de Vries, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte (in German)
- Beckman, N. and Kålund, Kr. (1914-16). Alfræði íslenzk: Islandsk encyklo-pædisk litteratur: II. Rímtöl [Encyclopaedic literature on the calendar]. s 72. (in Swedish)
- Gislason, K. Fire og fyrretyve for en stor Deel forhen utrykte Prøver af oldnordisk Sprog og Litteratur. (København: Gyldendalska bogh. 1860) (in Danish)
[1] Aurvandil, Orwandil, Horwandil and Erendil are different forms of the same name.
